Early English learning as a Foreign Language in primary school: which individual factors predict reading comprehension success three years later?

Although English as a foreign language is a compulsory subject in the Netherlands from grade 7 primary school onwards there are huge individual differences in English reading comprehension skills at the end of primary school. To improve these skills for all children we need to determine which cognitive, motivational and linguistic factors contribute to successful reading skills in English. In the current longitudinal study a total of 279 Dutch children were tested in three measurement waves: at 9-10, 10-11 and 11-12 years old. This study makes clear which factors are essential in predicting children’s reading comprehension skills at the end of primary school. It outlines the role of language background and Dutch linguistic skills, as an increasing number of children have a multilingual background and Dutch is the only written language all children receive formal education in. This study reveals which predictors for English reading comprehension skills, measured even before the start of formal English learning at school in grade 4 and in grades 5 and 6 when formal teaching has begun, predict English reading comprehension in grade 6. We used a large battery of linguistic (e.g. vocabulary and spelling) and cognitive measures (e.g. phonological memory, working memory), both in Dutch and in English. In addition, we administered questionnaires for English learning motivation, for amount and type of extramural exposure to English, and learner characteristics such as language background and multilingualism. The implications of these findings for formal English teaching to young learners and for theories of early formal second language learning will be discussed. We will also discuss how the current findings help teachers of English as an L2 to focus on those skills that are essential for English reading success at the end of primary school.